Vol. 70, No. 1

Jaedong CHOI
Peasants' dairy cooperatives in early twentieth-century Russia: the results of the agricultural technical assistance activities of the Moscow prefecture Zemstvo

The Moscow prefecture Zemstvo supported the organization of peasants' dairy cooperatives in order to aid the development of dairy operations through grass sowing. However, the activities of the cooperatives in Moscow prefecture did not always develop as the Zemstvo had hoped. Although their activities continued to grow thanks to the active assistance of Zemstvo agronomists, most of the cooperatives were financially in the red. The main reasons behind this were the low cultural level of peasants, the high market price of hay, the fact that payments from dairy cooperatives were less than the milk production cost, the severe seasonal fluctuation in milk supplies, and the small scale of cooperatives.

The Moscow prefecture Zemstvo agricultural technical assistance organization tried to recoup by entering the Moscow market. However, it was not possible to overcome the problem of the small scale of operations or the barriers protecting the city market. The Zemstvo agronomists came to doubt their overall significance. This failure was closely related to the rapid collapse of Zemstvos after the February Revolution of 1917. However, it should be noted that many of the agronomists who had experienced these difficulties played an important role in implementing the same policies after the 1917 Revolution.

Sachiko AMANO
The imposition of grain tax on landowners by the Nationalist government during the Sino-Japanese war (1937-45): a study of Sichuan province

The purpose of this paper is to examine at the grass roots the grain tax policy implemented by the Nationalist government for the purposes of‘total war’during the Sino-Japanese war by focusing on various problems at the basic level in the Sichuan province. Its conclusions can be summarized as follows:

First, the form taken by the tax was governed by the traditional land tax system and lack of organizational structure of local communities. Although the Nationalist government had begun to reform traditional systems, the outbreak of war had prevented any radical reform efforts. Second, when the demand for grain far exceeded supply, the government arranged for the compulsory purchase, borrowing, or additional levy of supplies. This placed an unfair burden on a limited number of landowners who were known to the government as payers of the tax. Third, the Nationalist government put leaders of townships and of sub country units in charge of grain levies in order to ensure that food supplies were thoroughly collected. These local leaders were under pressure from the central government to collect the tax; at the same time they had been given the opportunity to exercise their power over landowners. This structure of power caused a clash of interests in local communities.

Miki SUGIURA
The early modern Dutch distribution system: the growth of specialised merchants in Amsterdam 1580-1750

This paper aims to clarify the development of the distribution system in the Netherlands of the early modern period, when Amsterdam functioned as the world staple market. Historians have tended to draw a line between the international wholesale and local retail sections, giving most attention to the former. However, the overall workings of the distribution system cannot be understood without considering the development of inland distribution. It was from this perspective that I used contemporary sources to investigate the increasing differentiation among merchants. In the period 1580~1750, the most remarkable development was the growth of a middle layer of merchants who earned less than international traders but more than local retail traders. Most of these merchants specialised in one commodity, and this was reflected in occupational names with goods-specification such as 'wijn-koper' (wine merchant). I assume that these merchants specialised out of a need to adjust in line with other multi-faced distributive channels. This process should be distinguished as 'specification'. Even though they only sold one commodity, they were able to achieve a relatively high income through selling to both merchants and individual consumers inside and outside the city, multi-directionally and multi-functionally. The availability of an inland waterway system supported this growth. The distribution system formed as a result was quite different from that of England.

Eri HIROTA
French attitudes toward the Free Trade Area plan, 1956-58

The purpose of this article is to analyze the European Free Trade Area (FTA) from the point of view of the French government, and to explain the reasons behind France's veto.

The proposal to create the FTA caused France great concern. On the one hand, it was feared as a British attempt to sabotage the Common Market negotiations; on the other hand, it was welcomed as a way of involving Britain in European integration. It was essential for France that the FTA would include the same 'guarantees' as those procured for the Common Market. But as discussions proceeded within the French government, it became clear that a simple enlargement of the Common Market would not be to their advantage. In other words, France's rejection of the FTA was not caused by any lack of 'guarantees'. The problem lay in the fact that the FTA would not create the framework necessary for the modernization of the French economy; even worse, it would ruin the Treaties of Rome, which promised to do so.