Vol. 71, No. 5

Kenzen UEHARA
Trade control in the early period of the Tokugawa Shogunate and movements of the Shimazu clan

After the death of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu followed the marine order maintenance policy of Hideyoshi and adopted a trade control policy. Moreover, Ieyasu planned to trade with Mexico, using Uraga as the base for foreign trade. Uraga is in the Kanto region and was the power base of the Tokugawa Shogunate. As a matter of course, this plan implemented by Ieyasu affected the foreign trade conducted by the daimyo, or feudal lords�DThe purpose of this paper is to examine the foreign trade that the Shimazu clan, one of the daimyo of western Japan, conducted with the Philippines and China.

The Tokugawa Shogunate's negotiations with Spain, the colonial ruler of Mexico, for trade with Mexico were conducted through the missionaries and other foreigners living in Japan. In 1609, in the midst of the negotiations, the Shogunate changed its main foreign trade partners, shifting its focus from Portugal to Holland and Spain. Thus, 1609 was a pivotal year in that the destinations of the goods exported from Japan, mainly silk, were shifted from Portugal to Holland and Spain.

Furthermore, in 1611, Nagasaki was designated to serve as the sole port of call for ships from Tang China. The policy of banning other foreign trade bases was thus strictly enforced. This policy of the Shogunate pushed the Shimazu clan, which had been actively fostering trade ties with China, into a tight corner. This suggests that the Tokugawa Shogunate, besides seeking to prevent the spread of Christianity throughout Japan, also sought to build a system of trade control.

Makoto HIROTA
Research on municipal retail market policy in Tokyo during the interwar period

During World War I, the price of daily necessities rose dramatically in Japan, causing city residents to face many difficulties. Officials in each city established a municipal retail market to ease the burden on citizens and began selling foodstuffs at reasonable prices. However, the municipal retail market in the city of Tokyo (which was the capital and most populated city) was not sufficiently developed. This paper discusses the reasons why the municipal retail market was not sufficiently developed in Tokyo prior to World War II; specifically, (1) the absence of a mayor and resistance of the city council members delayed the establishment of the municipal retail market, (2) shopkeepers strongly opposed the municipal retail market, and (3) the system to operate the municipal retail market was in disarray because of regular interference in municipal administrative affairs by the city council members.

Shoko HIUGA
How did Furukawa Gomei Kaisha find a way out of its financial difficulties?

This paper sheds light on the characteristics of the financial transactions between Furukawa Gomei Kaisha (hereinafter FGK), a holding company, and its two major subsidiaries, Furukawa Bank (hereinafter FB) and Furukawa Mining Company (hereinafter FMC), in the 1920s.

FGK was heavily in debt mainly from FB and held its subsidiary companies' stocks. The bank allowed the parent company to suspend payments of principal and levied a preferential rate of interest. FB could not allow suspension of payments of interest, however, because it could not turn profits without interest payments from FGK. More than a quarter of its assets was loaned to FGK. Despite the preferential condition, FGK faced difficulties in paying interest from its revenues. It therefore borrowed short-term money from FMC in order to pay interest to the bank. The holding company could not repay these short-term debts, and offset them by shouldering FMC's own debts. These financial operations enabled not only the holding company but also the bank to continue business, and improved the financial soundness of FMC.

The findings suggest the existence of reciprocal transactions rather than a hierarchical power relationship between the parent company and its subsidiaries.

Naoki MOTOUCHI
Dreams and realities of the reconstruction planning of the English county town Worcester, 1939-1960

In recent years, there has been considerable argument about why the urban planners' 'paradise' of the immediate postwar years in the U.K. apparently faded so quickly and left so little trace. Much of this debate has focused on the bombed cities. This paper breaks fresh ground by considering development in a location that is less well known but often equally illuminating--the shire town, the quintessential centre of 'Englishness'.

Worcester did not suffer much bombing damage. But Worcester council, dominated by the Conservatives, commissioned planning consultants to draw up a plan to create a new and better urban fabric for the postwar future. The planners then did their best to understand local needs by collecting data through extensive surveys. The planners aimed to create better traffic flow; a more functional city centre with attractive shopping areas; careful zoning for industry and housing; new neighbourhoods with ample welfare and social facilities; and improved townscapes in which old and new buildings and vistas would be tastefully harmonised.

However, these proposals were generally only partially implemented by 1960. The planners faced many difficulties, especially three significant constraints: national government indifference; local politicians' declining interest in planning, predicated on their growing anxieties about finance; and public apathy about both planning and wider social issues.

Kazuaki SAWAUCHI
The public condominium business: Dojunkai and housing thought of the Department of the Interior

What impact did the formation of Dojunkai [public developer] condominiums have on the housing supply of the 1920s and 1930s? Dojunkai was established in 1924 to supply housing as part of relief efforts following the 1923 Kanto earthquake. The concept of a garden city was an ideal created by bureaucrats, but for architects, RC construction was the ideal. Rental units for low-income housing and apartments for the middle class were built by Dojunkai, but only the latter was successful. Dojunkai was reorganized in 1928, and a condominium enterprise was launched. This provided a challenge for the bureaucrats in pursuit of the garden city and led to a drop in housing rents as well as the acquisition of privately owned homes.